Controls on domestic wood-burning and solid fuel use in England

Domestic burning of solid fuels such as wood and manufactured fuels is a significant source of fine particulate matter (PM2.5, tiny particles like dust, soot or dirt), an air pollutant that can be harmful to human health. Domestic burning accounted for about a fifth of the UK’s PM2.5 emissions in 2023, a share similar to that of road transport, with emissions rising in recent years as wood stove use has increased. This is a cause of concern to the government which has targets to reduce all PM2.5 emissions and proposals to reduce emissions from solid fuel burning.

Air quality is a devolved issue and this briefing focuses on England. Further information can also be provided to MPs and their staff on request.

For background information about current air quality standards and targets see Library briefing Air quality: policies, proposals and concerns, March 2025.

Wood burning stoves, the environment and health

Domestic burning of solid fuels has been recognised by the Chief Medical Officer as the most polluting form of home heating. Emissions of PM2.5 vary depending on the type of appliance, the fuel used and how well both are maintained. Modern stoves can emit far fewer particulates than older models and open fireplaces, but they still generate short‑term increases in indoor pollution when lighting, refuelling or removing ash. Open fireplaces have been found to produce the highest pollution levels, increasing exposure to PM2.5 by up to seven times compared with modern stoves, while newer designs lessen but do not eliminate emissions.

The Chief Medical Officer has highlighted the health risks associated with particulate matter, noting strong evidence linking long‑term exposure to PM2.5 with mortality from cardiovascular, respiratory and cerebrovascular diseases. Vulnerable groups such as children, older people and those with existing health conditions are most affected. Air quality campaign groups, such as Mums for Lungs, have also raised concerns about the effects of smoke on daily activities, including people’s ability to open windows or use gardens without inhaling neighbouring smoke.

Government guidance and restrictions

Government guidance sets out steps households can take to reduce emissions from domestic burning. It emphasises regular servicing, chimney sweeping and appropriate maintenance to ensure appliances operate efficiently. It also places particular focus on fuel choice. The “Ready to Burn” certification indicates that wood or manufactured solid fuels contain no more than 20% moisture, making them cleaner and more efficient. Wet or treated wood should not be burned because of the additional pollutants released. The guidance also describes practical ways to identify properly dried wood, such as lower weight, a hollow sound when tapped, loose bark and lighter colour.

Regulations introduced in 2020 restrict the sale of the most polluting fuels in England. Traditional house coal has been phased out, and the sale of wet wood is prohibited in volumes under 2m³. Manufactured solid fuels must meet limits on sulphur content and smoke emissions and require certification demonstrating compliance. Local authorities enforce these requirements and can issue fixed penalty notices or pursue court action.

Particulate matter targets

Under the Environment Act 2021, the government has set statutory long‑term targets for PM2.5, including an annual mean concentration limit of 10 micrograms per cubic metre across England by 2040 and a target to reduce population exposure by 35% compared with 2018 levels. Interim targets for 2028 and 2030 have also been established through the Environmental Improvement Plan. The government publishes daily air pollution forecasts to help people understand local conditions.

Local authority controls and responsibilities

Local authorities must monitor and assess air quality, and must declare an Air Quality Management Area(s) when national objectives are at risk of being exceeded. In these areas, authorities prepare action plans to improve air quality. Councils may also designate smoke control areas under the Clean Air Act 1993. In these areas, only authorised fuels or exempt appliances may be used. Although local authorities can issue financial penalties for breaches, evidence gathered by campaign groups suggests enforcement can be challenging because officers often need to witness smoke emissions directly.

Aside from smoke control rules, smoke from domestic premises can constitute a statutory nuisance under the Environmental Protection Act 1990 if it is prejudicial to health or a nuisance. Local authorities must investigate complaints and may issue abatement notices requiring the nuisance to stop or be reduced. Individuals may also bring private legal action for common law nuisance (having sought professional legal advice), seeking remedies such as injunctions or damages.

Proposals for reform of domestic burning

In January 2026, the government and devolved administrations published a consultation on reducing emissions from solid fuel burning. Proposals include new smoke emission limits for appliances, mandatory labelling for appliances and fuels and new health labelling requirements. The government has also confirmed that wood‑burning stoves would continue to be permitted as secondary heating sources under the forthcoming Future Homes Standard (a set of building requirements for new homes).